Bichromate gum technique
The bichromate gum technique was invented to
reproduce works without having to engrave them. Engraving was
the only reproduction technique that existed until the middle
of the 19th century (see for example of the very beautiful burin
engraving by J. B.
Danguin (1823-1894) of
the portrait of Hendrickje
Stoffels from 1654 and the wooden
press of Plantin’s
house in Antwerp). The
discovery
of photosensitive reproduction processes (the technique of
gum dichromate is part of the whole process) around 1850 and
in the field of printing the invention of the Linotype
(Ottmar Mergenthaler) and the Monotype (Tolbert Lanston)
around 1880 revolutionized reproduction techniques. Their
purpose was to reproduce works more easily than the use of
engraving and especially to make a very large number of
prints.
In 1832, Gustav Suckov discovered chromates were sensitive
to light. In 1839, Mungo Ponton noticed that a paper
soaked in a solution of potassium bichromate was sensitive
to light. In 1840, Edmond Becquerel noted that sensitivity
to light could be increased if the paper was coated with
starch or gelatin. In 1852, William Henry Fox Talbot
showed that colloids, such as gelatin or gum arabic,
became insoluble after being mixed with potassium
bichromate and after exposure to light. In 1855, Alphonse
Louis Poitevin patented the charcoal process, which
consists of adding charcoal to the colloid + potassium
bichromate mixture. In 1858, John Pouncy used colored
pigments with the gum arabic + potassium bichromate
mixture, defining the bichromate gum technique and thus
obtained the first colour prints. The great photographer
who used the bichromate gum technique at the beginning of
the 20th century was Robert
Demachy.
Watercolor or gouache are mainly made up of a
binder, gum arabic, made of acacia sap, and pigments which
define colour. Gum arabic is a water-soluble glue. It is
said to be reversible, because after drying it can be
dissolved again into water. Paints using gum arabic as a
binder are reversible, and when painted and dry, they can
be washed because gum arabic dissolves in water. If
potassium bichromate is added to the water + gum arabic +
pigment mixture, a photosensitive paint is obtained which,
after exposure to UV, becomes insoluble. To make a
bichromate gum print, a layer of the photosensitive
mixture is painted on watercolour paper. When the
photosensitive layer is dry, it is covered with a negative
and exposed to UV radiation. After exposure, one puts the
paper in water. The parts of the photosensitive layer
which have been exposed to UV adhere to the paper, the
others will dissolve in water. We can therefore reproduce
a photo, a drawing, an etching or a flower ... using the
technique of bichromate gum. You can superimpose several
prints of different colours. It is a technique that lies
between engraving, printing, painting and photography. It
is a simple process which gives very good results.
This technique is particularly well suited to
reproduce Rembrandt's drawings and etchings. It does not
provide a simple copy, it makes it possible to obtain
stable prints which are more beautiful than photographs.
It therefore offers the possibility of exploring and
presenting the fascinating world of Rembrandt's drawings
and studying their links with his etchings. However, it is
an artisanal process which takes a long time to implement
and does not allow large numbers of prints.
Omval - Rembrandt
"Omval" (1641), {Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam}, is located in the vicinity of Amsterdam along the Amstel. This etching is a characteristic work of Rembrandt. He shows life on the river, a pedestrian speaking to the occupants of the passing ship, and above all, hardly perceptible, the lovers hidden in the foliage behind the tree. They represent freedom from religious conventions and it is a snub to religious authorities who condemned him for immoral behaviour. This etching breathes life, it does not give the impression of a frozen image. For Rembrandt the subject of the etching, the village of Omval, becomes secondary compared to life on the bank and the river. On the upper right of the print, we notice the small marks made by Rembrandt to test the needle of the etcher that allowed him to attack the coat of varnish. Rembrandt, who was oblivious of what people would say, is one of the very few engravers who could leave his experiences or even his mistakes on his plate.
"The de Run mill in Omval" (circa 1688-90),
{Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam}. Print of Jan Vincentsz van der
Vinne, after Laurens Vincentsz van der Vinne. This
etching, dated fifty years after Rembrandt’s, shows life
on the river at Omval. It is technically a beautiful
etching but it shows the difference in the treatment of
subjects by Rembrandt and the freedom he breathed into his
drawings and etchings.
Rembrandt had a very strong personality, he never let himself be influenced by what people might say, conventions or fashion changes, his only concern was to represent life as it was and he let himself be guided by extraordinary inspiration and vision. This way of doing confused many of his contemporaries and great collectors. For example "The Night Watch" painting was admired but found disconcerting. His painting "The Conspiracy of the Batavians under Claudius Civilis" (1661), made at the request of the Amsterdam city hall, was rejected by the latter. Finally, some of his etchings, considered immoral or vulgar, were never acquired by certain great collectors. His way of life was considered immoral by religious authorities and many of his contemporaries, and note that even at the peak of his glory, he was never invited to Muiden Castle, where the influential circles of Amsterdam's artistic life met.
His sentimental life was not a
long, calm river. In 1634, he married Saskia van
Uylenburg, his great love. His first three children did
not survive, only the fourth, Titus, lived to become an
adult. Saskia died in 1642. He then started a liaison
with Geertje Dircx, but then again, his new love with
Hendrickje Stoffels caused a particularly dramatic break
with Geertje. With Hendrickje, he had a daughter,
Cornelia. Hendrickje died probably of the plague in 1663
and Titus died of the plague in 1668, a year before
Rembrandt.
Rembrandt, in addition being a painter, was also an art dealer and a great collector of works, various objects and clothes which he used for his paintings. He was in constant conflict with art dealers because he wanted the works to be paid their fair price. They took revenge when they could, and came to an agreement during the sale following his bankruptcy so that the prices remained ridiculously low, leading to a colossal failure. At the height of his glory, Rembrandt made a lot of money, but spent it easily, several factors including a hazardous investment made that he could no longer repay the mortgage for his house. After his bankruptcy and the sale of all his property (1656 - 1658), Rembrandt continued to paint and produced some of his most beautiful paintings. He received some orders, but died in misery. After his death there was not enough money left to pay him a grave.
"Self-portrait" (circa 1628-29, Benesch, B 54, circa
1629, Schatborn, S 628), {Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam},
drawing done with brush and pen, made during the
Leiden period. It is one of Rembrandt's first
preserved self-portraits. He made many
self-portraits, drawing, etchings as well as
paintings. They allowed him when he started to
perfect his etching technique, to study the
expression of the face to express different
feelings, like fear, astonishment ..., and later to
follow the evolution of his face in the course of
his life. His latest painting is a self-portrait.
The main characteristic of his self-portraits is the
emotion and humanism that emanate from them. In his
drawings, etchings and paintings, he often came to
represent himself. When he was famous, many people wanted
to buy a portrait of Rembrandt, which encouraged
him to take self- portraits.
"Self-portrait"
(circa 1629), {Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam}, etching
made from the drawing "Self-portrait"
from 1628-29. It is one of the first etchings of
Rembrandt, who began etchings in 1625-26. To keep
the flexibility of the line and its spontaneity,
Rembrandt drew on the metal plate as on a sheet of
paper, and the print is reversed. The only method
of engraving that allows to keep the flexibility
and spontaneity of the line is the etching
technique. One covers the copper plate to engrave
with a varnish and draw on the varnish with a very
fine needle that removes it. Then the copper plate
is dropped into acid (called “eau forte” in the
17th century). The acid attacks the copper plate
where the varnish has been removed by the needle.
This etching will be compared with the etching "Self-portrait
leaning on a stone sill" made ten years
later.
"Self-portrait
leaning on a stone sill" (1639),
{Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam}, etching to compare to
the "Self-portrait" done in 1629.
While Rembrandt is at the top of his art of
engraving and achieves one of his most beautiful
self-portraits, he leaves on the right of the
etching the preliminaries of a sketch and a
series of pencil lines (stones of the wall). The
latter shows that this print is probably one of
the first and that Rembrandt wondered if he
would continue working on it. He considered that
the plaque was finished and left it in this
state. The only thing that interested him is the
representation of the expression of his face and
the luxury of his clothes. The sketched outlines
show that he did not care about conventions and
did not take himself seriously. The sale of
prints of his etchings was a regular, and not
negligible, source of income. This etching will
be followed by the painting "Self-portrait
at the age of 34".
The transparency used
in the bichromate gum technique to make the
copy of the etching "Self-portrait
Leaning on a Stone Sill" (1639). The
transparency is placed on the sheet painted
with photosensitive watercolor and the whole
is exposed to UV radiation. The radiation
passes through the transparency in the white
areas that are transparent. After exposure,
the paper is put into water. The parts of
the photosensitive layer that have been
exposed to UV adhere to the paper, the
others will dissolve in the water. This
gives a reproduction of Rembrandt's etching.
The UV exposure time depends on the color of
the chosen watercolor. The transparency in
the technique of gum bichromate is the
equivalent of the metal plate in engraving.
We will focus on Rembrandt's
drawings, as well as his etchings which are
inseparable from his drawings. Both were Rembrandt's
preferred tools to carry out his experiences, namely
how to represent life as he could observe it around
him. Rembrandt was one of the greatest draughtsman
and engraver of all time. He was with Katsushika
Hokusai (1760 - 1849) and Käthe Kollwitz (1867 -
1945), the one who best expressed the feelings of
the humans and animals he drew, the atmosphere of
the scenes or landscapes he wanted to represent.
The first characteristic of his drawings are the freedom of the line and the way he used to draw, which was sometimes completely unpredictable. In his documentary “Le mystère Picasso” (1956), Henri-Georges Clouzot, tried to answer the question: what happens in the brain of a painter when he is working? We can find Rembrandt's creative approach by looking at how his preparatory, sometimes very rudimentary drawings allowed him to produce a masterpiece. He did so when he felt ready, sometimes after several years of reflection. The final result, technically unbeatable, looks exactly the same as the greatest magic tricks: it seems easy but in fact it is technically incomprehensible, in a word, at first sight perfect (see for example the etching: "The Hundred Guilder Print" and its preliminary studies). The different stages of his work show all the issues he solved. In a first step, he analyzed the problems of movement or construction. In a second stage, when he had understood the problems of movement and general construction, he focused on the expression of the characters or animals and the reproduction of the atmosphere of the scene which he described. In a third step, he placed shadows and lights to indicate the volumes and the hierarchy of plans. Rembrandt also liked to copy the old masters.
He probably made
sketches every day. In forty years, on the
basis of three sketches a day, he has made a
minimum of forty thousand sketches or
drawings. Only landscapes, scenes from the
Bible, scenes from life can be very completed
drawings, but very often these are
intermediate sketches, which unfortunately did
not interest his contemporaries or collectors
and the vast majority of his preliminary
drawings has been lost.
Rembrandt had many students who drew in his own way, and since most of the drawings were neither dated nor signed, it can be extremely difficult to date and attribute Rembrandt's drawings for sure.
After facing bankruptcy and the sale of his house, his press, his collections and his goods in 1658, Rembrandt had to move in 1660 and concentrated on painting. We have fewer drawings corresponding to the period 1660 - 1669.
When Rembrandt
takes a close look at a scene for a few seconds or
imagines an ephemeral scene, he breaks down the
difficulties into several steps to understand them.
In the first step, Rembrandt analyzes and tries to understand the construction and/or the movement of the scene. But he will draw the scene in a completely different way if he observes a static or quasi-static scene (that is to say in slow motion) or whether he observes a scene in quick motion (for example dancers or a man mounting a horse). In the case of a static or slow moving scene, Rembrandt's drawing practically represents a photo and is similar to a freeze-frame based on the film he is observing, while in the case of a fast moving scene, Rembrandt's drawing represents an overlay of photos from the film. To illustrate the two variants of this first stage, we will present two drawings: the "Couple of Beggars with a Dog" and the "Rustic People Dancing". When Rembrandt observes a scene part of which is quasi-static and part of fast motion, he combines the two variants in the same drawing. This is for example the case in the drawing: "A man helping a rider to mount his horse".
In the second step, Rembrandt tries to understand the expression of the characters or animals on the scene. To illustrate this second stage, we will present two drawings: "The Sacrifice of Manoach" and "Three Soldiers Having Fun With Women". Some studies combine the two methods of the first step as well as the second step. In one part of the drawing, Rembrandt studies the composition of the scene and in another part, he analyzes the motion and finally in a third part he studies the expression of the characters or animals (see the drawing "Two Horses in the Coaching Inn").
In the first step, Rembrandt analyzes and tries to understand the construction and/or the movement of the scene. But he will draw the scene in a completely different way if he observes a static or quasi-static scene (that is to say in slow motion) or whether he observes a scene in quick motion (for example dancers or a man mounting a horse). In the case of a static or slow moving scene, Rembrandt's drawing practically represents a photo and is similar to a freeze-frame based on the film he is observing, while in the case of a fast moving scene, Rembrandt's drawing represents an overlay of photos from the film. To illustrate the two variants of this first stage, we will present two drawings: the "Couple of Beggars with a Dog" and the "Rustic People Dancing". When Rembrandt observes a scene part of which is quasi-static and part of fast motion, he combines the two variants in the same drawing. This is for example the case in the drawing: "A man helping a rider to mount his horse".
In the second step, Rembrandt tries to understand the expression of the characters or animals on the scene. To illustrate this second stage, we will present two drawings: "The Sacrifice of Manoach" and "Three Soldiers Having Fun With Women". Some studies combine the two methods of the first step as well as the second step. In one part of the drawing, Rembrandt studies the composition of the scene and in another part, he analyzes the motion and finally in a third part he studies the expression of the characters or animals (see the drawing "Two Horses in the Coaching Inn").
In
the third step, Rembrandt places shadows and
lights to show the hierarchy of plans and the
volume of the scene. To illustrate this third
step, we will present the drawings "The
soldier at the Brothel", "The
Naughty Boy", the "Young
Woman Lying Down" and the etching "The
Angel Leaves Tobit and his Family".
These studies show Rembrandt's extraordinary ability to memorize, understand and translate the characteristics of a scene he observed for a few seconds, as well as his exceptional drawing ability. Note that when Rembrandt tried to understand a problem, some details of the drawing did not interest him and he treated them in a sloppy or careless manner, which made critics say that Rembrandt did not know how to draw!
A great
characteristic of Rembrandt's work is that he never
drew, etched or painted a given subject in the same
way twice. In order to keep the freshness and
spontaneity of the drawing, Rembrandt would change
the drawing of the scene significantly when he moved
from one step to the next or from one technique to
another, drawing then etching, drawing or etching
then painting. This, moreover, allowed him to study
several ways of representing the scene while solving
the technical difficulties it contained. This way of
doing things allowed him to tackle a given theme
over several decades without ever repeating himself
and it shows Rembrandt's exceptional faculties of
imagination and memory. It should be noted that
these exceptional faculties can be maintained and
worked on. Let us quote the example of Katsushika
Hokusaï who decided to draw a different lion every
day and who produced several hundreds!
First step
When Rembrandt
draws scenes corresponding to the first step, he
draws the sketch on the spot just after observing
the scene (observation which lasts about thirty
seconds at most).
Couple of Beggars with a Dog
"Couple of Beggars with a Dog"
(circa 1647-48, Benesch, B 751, Schatborn, S 390),
{Albertina, Vienna}. The drawing shows how Rembrandt
studies the problem of building an ephemeral quasi-static
scene, that is to say in slow motion. The lines are simple
and delimit the shapes of the characters and the dog. It
does not deal with any precise details, the hands, the
clothes ... and yet it already perfectly translates the
atmosphere of the scene, the walking of the characters and
the contrast of the sleeping children behind the parents.
It is a real freeze-frame based on the film that Rembrandt
is watching. This sketch shows Rembrandt's extraordinary
faculties for memorizing and analyzing a scene that he
observes for a few seconds. It must be remembered that
Rembrandt drew everyday in his studio of course, but
especially when he was walking, he drew in the street, in
the countryside, in taverns and all the places where he
could observe life (at the doctor's office, at the
slaughterhouse…).
"Rustic People Dancing" (circa 1635, Benesch, B 258
verso), {Graphische Sammlung, Munich}. This
drawing represents a couple of rustic people
dancing at a party. Rembrandt drew the couple
twice on the same sheet. This drawing shows
how Rembrandt studies the problem of the quick
motion which may characterize an ephemeral
scene and how the treatment that he realizes
is totally different from what he does in the
case of a quasi-static scene. He analyzes and
seeks to understand movement, but does not
precisely define the shape of the characters.
No detail is treated, it suggests, in a few
strokes, how the dancer who pulls the lady
wiggles his hips. It increases the impression
of movement by multiplying the arms of the
dancers and the legs of the lady. The drawing
represents an overlay of photos from the film
he is watching (see also the drawing "Two Horses in the Coaching Inn"). The illusion of dance
emerges from this sketch made in a few lines.
Rembrandt does not seek to accurately
represent the dancers but rather to suggest
their movement. At the end, he draws and
represents the faces of the woman, who
obviously have fun, while he simply suggests
the head of the man. This final step
corresponds to the second step, in which he
expresses the feelings of the characters.
Combination of the two
variants of the first step
When Rembrandt observes a scene part of which
is quasi-static and part is rapid movement, he
combines the two variants in the same drawing.
“A
man helps a rider to mount his horse”
(circa 1637, Benesch, B 363 recto, circa
1640-41, Schatborn, S 48), {Rijksmuseum,
Amsterdam}. Rembrandt observes a man helping
a rider to mount a horse. This sketch allows
him to analyze and understand the movement
of the rider. The quasi-static part
corresponds to the horse and the man
standing beside it and the fast moving part
corresponds to the rider who mounts his
horse. Rembrandt draws the quasi-static part
very simply as a freeze-frame, he draws the
back of the horse and one leg, he suggests
the head and the neck of the horse and the
man helping the rider to mount. Rembrandt
draws
the rider who has his left foot in the stirrup
and who holds the saddle with his left hand,
as he is mounting the horse. He draws it by a
superposition of images which describe the
movement. It splits the right arm and the
bust, and triples the rider's right leg. On
the reverse side of the paper sheet is drawn "A rider
with a quiver", suggesting that
immediately after this study done after
observing the rider mounting a horse,
Rembrandt turned the sheet and drew a rider
wearing a feathered hat, on his horse. He will
later use this sktech in the etching “The
baptism of the eunuch” (1641). To
keep the freshness and spontaneity of the
line, Rembrandt engraves a variant of the
sketch and does not reverse the drawing (it
is
interesting to compare the
reverse of the sketch and the rider
of the etching).
Legend says that when Rembrandt had finished
these sketches he went to a tavern with one of
his pupils. The latter, after looking at the
sketches said to Rembrandt: "Master, you
should explain your sketches, because one day
an expert might write: "Rembrandt tried to
draw a rider mounting a horse, but he does not
seem to have found a clear solution… This
indicates that Rembrandt did not draw from a
model but worked from memory ... " and that:
"the drawing made on the back is not by you
but have been added by a merchant to make the
sketch of the rider mounting more attractive
for sale !" (P. Schatborn 1985). Rembrandt's
response did not reached us, but it is easy to
imagine. The sketch "A man helps a rider to
mount his horse" was used as preparation for
the realization of the rider
of the painting "The
concord of the State" (1637 –
1645, Museum Boijmans, Rotterdam).
Second step
"The Sacrifice of Manoach" (circa 1637-40, Benesch, B 180,
circa 1635, Schatborn, S 54),
{Kupferstichkabinett, Berlin}. Manoach and his
wife, who cannot have children, sacrifice a
lamb. From flames appears an angel who
announces that they are going to have a child.
This child, Samson, will deliver Israel from
the yoke of the Philistines. It is the most
beautiful drawing representing the appearance
and the flight of an angel which was made by
Rembrandt. This study fits the second step in
problem solving. Once he analyzed and
understood the movement in a previous step, he
represents it and expresses the feelings of
the characters he draws. In this study, it
represents the flight of the angel, the recoil
due to surprise, the amazement and fear of
Manoach and his wife. He studies the
positioning of the arms and hands of the
characters as well as the legs of the angel to
increase the feeling of movement, but he is
not interested in representing precisely of
other details, such as the hands of the
characters or the feet of the angel. Rembrandt has been
criticized for not knowing how to draw hands or
feet. But for Rembrandt this is a minor detail
at this level of the study and one can admire
the hands of the etching "Portrait of Jan Cornelis Sylvius". He works in detail on
the expression of Manoach's face and more
succinctly that of his wife's face. One can
admire the freedom of the line, the
unpredictable direction of the line for the
representation of the angel and how in a few
lines it translates the ephemeral nature and
emotion of this scene. This study is
characteristic of Rembrandt's manner and
technique. After the second stage, when he had
finished solving the preliminary difficulties,
Rembrandt generally made an engraving or a
painting, but could also make a very
accomplished drawing. In the third step he
places the shadows and lights in the case of a
drawing or an etching and adds the colors in
the case of a painting. The drawing of the
angel from the study "The
Sacrifice of Manoach"
was used again by Rembrandt in the painting "The
Angel Leaves Tobit and his Family" painted in 1637 and in the etching
"The
Angel Leaves Tobit and his Family" done in 1641.
"Three Soldiers Having Fun with
Women" (circa
1635, Benesch, B 100 verso, Schatborn, S 31),
{Kupferstichkabinett, Berlin}. This drawing
was made at the same period as the drawing "Rustic
people dancing".
This drawing corresponds to the second step.
Rembrandt solved the problem of the
construction of couples, what interests him
here is the expression of the characters. The
soldier in the foreground tries to put his
hand between the legs of the woman who reacts
violently, she tries to withdraw his hand and
is about to slap him. Rembrandt splits the
woman's right arm to show its movement and
favors the expression of her face. In the case
of the second couple Rembrandt shows the
characters having fun while caressing.
Combination of steps
1 & 2
"Two Horses in the Coaching Inn" (circa
1637, Benesch, B 461, circa 1629, Schatborn, S 460),
{Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam}. Two horses pulling a
carriage stop to rest. The driver places a blanket on
the horses and a woman feeds one of the horses. This
study is particularly remarkable. It combines the two
methods of the first step as well as the second step
of Rembrandt's method to draw an ephemeral scene. To
begin Rembrandt realizes the quasi-static part or
freeze frame which allows him to build his drawing,
this first step corresponds to the carriage, the
coachman, the blanket and the woman. Their
representation is made very simply without any
details. Then, he draws the horse's head in the
background. The horse eats the fruit that the lady
holds out, this corresponds to the study of the
movement of the first step. Rembrandt splits and even
triples the layout of the horse's head showing the
movement of grabbing the fruit and starting to chew.
This is an example of repentance used to suggest
movement (see also the drawings "Rustic
People Dancing" and "A
man helps a rider to mount his horse").
Duplication to indicate movement was already used in
the Paleolithic or Neolithic (in ancient Egypt for
example). And finally, Rembrandt draws in detail the
expression of the horse's head in the foreground, its
neck and its four legs, which corresponds to the
second step of its method of study. It should be noted
once again the extraordinary faculties of memorization
and analysis of Rembrandt who watches for a few
seconds an ephemeral scene.
Third
step
"The Naughty Boy"
(circa 1635, Benesch, B 401, Schatborn, S 238),
{Kupferstichkabinett, Berlin}. This drawing
corresponds to the third step. Rembrandt solved
the problems of construction, movement and
expression of the characters. He places the
shadows and lights to give the impression of
volume. To strengthen the violent and ephemeral
nature of the scene, Rembrandt draws the shoe of
the child which has just come off his foot and
which is falling. If he draws with great
attention the movement of the two women and the
child, as well as the expression of the faces of
the women and the three children, he very
succinctly draws the hands of women and
especially their feet. Rembrandt concentrates
his work on bringing some part of the drawing to
the spectator’s attention and translating the
nature of the scene.
The Soldier at the Brothel
"The Soldier at the Brothel" or "The
Soldier at the Tavern"
(circa 1642-43, Benesch, B 529), {private
collection}. This drawing is generally called "The Prodigal Son in the Company of
Women of Easy Virtue"
or "The Prodigal Son
at the Tavern",
however the man has a dagger on his belt and his
sword is placed along the armchair to the right
of the drawing. It therefore seems unlikely that
it was the prodigal son. This drawing is an
example that fits the third step, it represents
a miniature painting. We will notice the freedom
of the line and the simplicity of the sceneries,
Rembrandt is interested in recreating the
atmosphere and the expression of the characters
who have fun.
The Angel Leaves Tobit and his Family
"The
Angel Leaves Tobit and his Family" (1641), {Rijksmuseum,
Amsterdam}. Archangel Raphael leaves Tobit
and his family after treating Tobit's
father's blindness. Tobit's family thanks
the angel who flies away and disappears. In
this completed etching, Rembrandt resume
consideration of the study of the angel of
the drawing "The Sacrifice of Manoach". This etching corresponds to the
third stage and is a variant of the painting
from 1637: "The
Angel Leaves Tobit and his Family".
One of the characteristics of Rembrandt is
that he can be interested in a subject for
several years and provide very different
representations. In the etching, he focuses
on the family of Tobit and the expression of
the characters. Note that for Rembrandt, the
little dog represents the symbol of the
loyalty of Tobit's family towards the
Archangel Raphael whereas in the Bible the
dog is a harmful animal which has a very bad
reputation. This shows that when Rembrandt
draws a biblical scene, he signs it with his
personality and always makes his point of
view predominate over generally accepted
conventions. Rembrandt draws only the bottom
of the angel who takes flight suggesting the
quick disappearance of the angel in the eyes
of Tobit's family and the spectator who
witnesses an ephemeral scene.
Lying Young Woman
"Lying
Young Woman",
probably Hendrickje Stoffels (around
1655-56, Benesch, B 1103, around 1654,
Schatborn, S 441), {British Museum,
London}. This drawing is done with brush
and ink and is one of Rembrandt's
masterpieces. It gives an idea of what
Rembrandt could achieve when he had
finished solving the early difficulties.
One can practically find the sequence of
the brush strokes according to the ink
charge that remains in the brush.
The freedom of Rembrandt's line
Rembrandt's passion for freedom influenced his way of drawing. Indeed, one of the characteristics of its line is the freedom of its line and sometimes a completely unpredictable way of drawing. To keep this freedom, Rembrandt never closes his drawing when he creates it. We say that we close a drawing if the first lines that we put constrain the continuation of the construction of the drawing. For example, you can draw a head with only an oval if you want to make a quick construction during a first step, but you should not start with an oval if you want to make a portrait. If we draw a scene with several characters we first place them then we draw the background to finish. To keep the line free, constraints must come as late as possible during the drawing process. To illustrate our point, we will present two examples of studies for the painting "Saint John the Baptist Preaching".
Preliminary Study
"Preliminary Study" (circa 1637 by Benesch,
B139A), {Private collection} for the
painting "Saint John the Baptist
Preaching".
At this stage of the work, Rembrandt
draws the heads with ovals because he
does not want to draw the details, to
make portraits. First, he places the
characters or groups of characters, then
he settles or aligns the elements of the
scenery. This drawing matches
Rembrandt's first step of study.
When he focuses
his interest on a particular character
in a group, it is very interesting to
see how Rembrandt draws the group while
avoiding to close/constrain his drawing.
We will present the two drawings "Guided by an
Angel, Lot and his Family
Leave Sodom" and
"Lot
and his Daughters" in which Rembrandt focuses
on the main characters, most notably
Lot.
"Lot
and his Daughters"
(circa 1636, Benesch, B 128, circa
1638, Schatborn, S 57), {Klassik
Stiftung, Weimar}. After leaving
Sodom which is destroyed by God, Lot
and his daughters take refuge in a
cave which contains wine which God
has placed there. The two girls find
themselves alone with their father
because their fiancés did not want
to follow them. The eldest daughter
is afraid of not being able to have
descendants in this isolated place,
she decides to get drunk her father
so that he makes her pregnant and
advises her young sister to do the
same. Together with his eldest
daughter, Lot had a son named Moab
who founded the Moabite kingdom.
With her youngest daughter, he had a
son Ben-Ammi who founded the kingdom
of the Ammonites. The drawing
represents the girl who, with her
hand, encourages her father to hold
the cup to drink while he begins to
get drunk. In order not to close his
drawing, Rembrandt begins with Lot
and makes a very detailed
representation of him, except for
his legs which are succinctly drawn.
Then he draws the expressive face
and the hand of his eldest daughter
(?) who encourages his father
already under the influence of
alcohol to keep on drinking. Finally
he finishes by sketching the young
girl and some elements of the decor.
This drawing is a very good example
of a study sheet which contains the
three characteristic steps of
Rembrandt.
It
was
preceded by a very finished drawing "Lot
and his Daughters"
(circa 1631) which is generally attributed
to the Rembrandt school but may have been
by Rembrandt and was diffused through Jan
van Vliet's 1631 etching.
Finally, note that Rembrandt's drawing
can also be characterized by a drawing
line which is completely unpredictable
and which is of the greatest virtuosity.
By this process Rembrandt suggests what
he wants to represent without drawing it
precisely. Generally Rembrandt uses this
process when he finishes a drawing in
order not to give the impression of
rigidity but to give to the drawing an
impression of life and freshness. For
example, we can observe this type of
line in the portrait of Saskia from
1633.
Portrait of Saskia
"Portrait of Saskia" (detail of the drawing
dated 1633 and annotated by
Rembrandt, Benesch B 427,
Schatborn, S 629),
{Kupferstichkabinett, Berlin}.
Rembrandt drew a portrait of
Saskia on June 8, 1633, three days
after their engagement. It is a
drawing made with a silver point
on parchment. He first draws the
face, hat and left hand of Saskia,
then he draws the right hand. Note
that this right hand does not have
the delicacy of the other hand and
is a man's hand, the hand of
Rembrandt who offers a flower to
his wife, his beloved. Then ends
the two sleeves and the shoulder
of Saskia's coat with drawing
lines completely unpredictable.
Its layout suggests the shoulder
and the two sleeves without
explicitly drawing them. It
produces a much more beautiful
result than what the normal
drawing of the sleeves could have
been. It is a way of drawing
Saskia's clothes without closing
the design.
For Rembrandt the most important is
not to draw accurately the whole thing
but to work on which interests him in
the drawing and which allows him to
express what he wishes, the part which
must catch the eye of the observer. This
way
of treating the subject is also found in
certain paintings executed after 1650. Note also that in
the treatment of the subject of drawing
or etching developed by Rembrandt, the
theme of the subject becomes secondary
to the breathe of life brought into his
drawing or etching. To illustrate all of
what we have just developed, we present
the "Study for
the Lamentation of Jacob" and the painting "Woman bathing in
a Stream"
by Rembrandt as well as the lithograph "The Mother and her Child" by Käthe Kollwitz and the
print "The
Great Wave of Kanagawa" by Katsushika Hokusai.
Study for the Lamentation of Jacob
"Study for the Lamentation of Jacob"
(circa 1635, Benesch, B 95, Schatborn
S 40), {Kupferstichkabinett, Berlin}.
Jacob, grandson of Abraham, had twelve
sons who founded the twelve tribes of
Israel. He laments because the Lord
has destroyed all his homes. We can
find in this study all that we
explained previously. Rembrandt
represents Jacob begging a specter
which appears to him in his distress.
Jacob believes that it is a vision of
God whereas it is probably the specter
of his twin brother Esau because the
vision of the face of God causes
death. Jacob is the father of Joseph.
Potifar's wife accused him saying he
wanted to seduce her.
Woman Bathing in a Stream
“Woman Bathing in a Stream” (1654), {National Gallery, London}. In this painting, Rembrandt focuses on the face of the woman who enters the water, he shows the pleasure of the woman who is going to take a bath. The face is the only part of the painting that is treated with great delicacy and finish. On the other hand, the dress is painted with great virtuosity, with large brushstrokes and with a lot of impasto. The right hand of the woman lifting up the dress is painted very succinctly, but if you don't look at it in detail, it doesn't shock. To translate the movement of the woman entering the water, Rembrandt paints and highlights the ripples caused by the woman's legs in the water of the stream. This way of painting was totally misunderstood by Rembrandt's contemporaries, who criticized him for making unfinished paintings.
The Mother and her Child
"The
Mother and her Child" (1916, Lithography)
by Käthe Kollwitz. In this
remarkable lithograph, Käthe
Kollwitz wants to translate the
love between a mother and her
child. The viewer's eye is
attracted by the expression of
the faces of the mother and the
child. Note that the mother's
hands are drawn very roughly,
which does not disturb the
vision of the work.
The Great Wave of Kanagawa
Katsushika
Hokusai
print called "The
Great Wave of Kanagawa"
which is part of the
series of thirty six
prints dedicated to Mount
Fuji. Although Mount Fuji
is a sacred mountain and
the fishermen living at
the same period as Hokusai
are considered to belong
to the lowest level of
society, for Hokusaï the
life of the fishermen and
their extreme living
conditions were more
important than the Mount
Fuji.
Finally, it should be noted
that Rembrandt's drawing
line evolved a lot towards
the end of his life after
about 1655. After his move
in 1660, Rembrandt produced
very few etchings, for press
had been sized. It is also
possible that his production
of drawings has decreased,
and in any case, we have few
drawings corresponding to
this period.
This evolution was
intensifying after the death
of Hendrickje Stoffel in 1663.
We
will illustrate this
evolution of Rembrandt's
line with the drawing of "Diane and
Actéon".
Diane and Acteon
"Diane
and Acteon", (circa 1662-65,
Benesch - B 1210, circa
1656, Schatborn, S 161),
{Kupferstichkabinett,
Dresden}. Rembrandt broachs
this theme again in his late
period by making a free
transposition of an
engraving by Antonio
Tempesta (1555
– 1630). This drawing is
probably one of Rembrandt's
last known drawing. If the
drawing remains very free, it
simplfies considerably and the
curves are often replaced by
straight lines, the line
becomes less flexible, more
angular, more rudimentary.
Rembrandt uses more gladly
uses reed or bamboo, which
provides a vigorous line but
at the same time very nuanced.
Nevertheless, we note the
extraordinary efficiency in
representing the heads and
faces of Diane and her
followers. After Hendrickje's
death and all the trials he
had faced before, Rembrandt
who is beyond pain, wants to
avoid the superfluous
brilliant, to simplify and to
go to the essential. The
unpredictable lines no longer
appear in his drawings from
the late period. This
development was perhaps
amplified by health and vision
problems. It is also found in
his paintings. This evolution
confused his admirers who felt
his paintings were unfinished
and no longer wanted to buy
any, but Rembrandt no longer
cared about the opinions of
his potential clients.
As previously
mentioned, Rembrandt never drew
the scenes he was studying in the
same way twice, and the final
version of the scene he wanted to
represent was different from the
studies he had made of it. This
method of working allowed him to
understand in volume the subject
or scene he was studying.
Arnold Houbraken (1660 - 1719)
reports about Rembrandt: "He
frequently sketched a face in
ten different ways before
reproducing it on the canvas".
As a draughtsman, engraver and
painter, Rembrandt has always
wanted to represent and
translate the volume of the
scene which he reproduced so
that the spectator who looks at
one of his works has the
impression that he is not
observing a frozen scene and
projected in two dimensions on a
plane but a lively and natural
scene. He had this desire to
make the work that the spectator
observes more human. Rembrandt
realized very early on that one
way to solve this problem was
the use of light and dark and
more generally the play of
shadows and lights. This already
appears clearly in the painting
"The
Parable of the Rich Fool"
(Gemäldegalerie,
Berlin)
painted in 1627 during his third
year after the establishment of
his studio in Leiden. In his
paintings to increase the effect
of volume, Rembrandt very often
represents the background of the
painting out of focus.
The most extraordinary example of etching in Rembrandt's research to give the viewer the impression of volume, life and nature is the portrait of Jan Cornelis Sylvius.
Parable of the rich fool
The most extraordinary example of etching in Rembrandt's research to give the viewer the impression of volume, life and nature is the portrait of Jan Cornelis Sylvius.
Portrait of J C Sylvius
"Portrait of Jan
Cornelis Sylvius", Rembrandt (1646),
{Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam}.
Rembrandt inflicts the
spectators to follow one
vision angle by drawing a
beveled-cut perspective of
the removable frame. The
spectator’s point of view is
on the right, slightly lower
than Jan Cornelis. The light
also comes from the right
but it’s source is higher
than Jan Cornelis. To
increase the impression of
volume, Rembrandt draws
the right hand, the book and
Jan Cornelis’ head out of
the image plane and draws
their shadows on the
removable frame. The result
is a lively portrait, full
of humanity. Rembrandt
manages to go beyond the
story, the portrait is not
just a simple projection on
the sheet of paper.